Fluoride removal in batch and column systems using bonechar produced in a top-lit updraft drum gasifier and furnace.

Hundreds of millions of people are exposed to excessive levels of fluoride in drinking water, predominately in low-resource communities. Activated alumina is recognized as the best available technology for fluoride removal from drinking water by the United States Environmental Protection Agency, but it has substantial economic and environmental costs. Bonechar is a more environmentally friendly and potentially lower cost alternative adsorbent. Here, fluoride adsorption from groundwater (pH 8.1 ± 0.2) by activated alumina was compared with bonechar primarily produced from bovine bones at peak heating temperatures between 400 and 1100 °C in a modular top-lit updraft drum (TLUD) stove (using a bone-wood mixture) and furnace. TLUD and furnace bonechar produced at peak heating temperatures 650-1000 °C and 400-800 °C, respectively, outperformed activated alumina in batch tests (i.e., required smaller doses to achieve 90% fluoride removal). The impact of using bovine versus swine bones to produce bonechar had a negligible impact on fluoride adsorption. A wide range of peak heating temperatures in the TLUD achieved by varying primary air flow rates and fuel selection (e.g., bone-to-wood mass ratios) produced efficient fluoride adsorbents. This finding demonstrates that a TLUD can be a robust, operationally flexible production system. Fluoride removal by TLUD and furnace bonechars showed strong, negative correlations (R2 ≥0.88) with organic matter content. Bonechar pilot column tests indicated that the mass transfer zone was captured (i.e., immediate fluoride breakthrough was not observed) at an empty bed contact time (EBCT) of 5 min, increasing EBCT to 30 min had a minimal impact on adsorption efficiency, and intermittent operation (3-10 d shut-off periods) decreased effluent fluoride concentrations. Furnace bonechars produced at peak heating temperatures 400-700 °C outperformed activated alumina in pilot columns. Differences in adsorption efficiencies in batch and column tests were associated with the linearity of fluoride adsorption. A theoretical model quantifying adsorption linearity with Freundlich 1/n values was able to predict adsorber performance solely based on batch test data.

Evaluating Activated Carbon Adsorption of Dissolved Organic Matter and Micropollutants Using Fluorescence Spectroscopy.

Dissolved organic matter (DOM) negatively impacts granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption of micropollutants and is a disinfection byproduct precursor. DOM from surface waters, wastewater effluent, and 1 kDa size fractions were adsorbed by GAC and characterized using fluorescence spectroscopy, UV-absorption, and size exclusion chromatography (SEC). Fluorescing DOM was preferentially adsorbed relative to UV-absorbing DOM. Humic-like fluorescence (peaks A and C) was selectively adsorbed relative to polyphenol-like fluorescence (peaks T and B) potentially due to size exclusion effects. In the surface waters and size fractions, peak C was preferentially removed relative to peak A, whereas the reverse was found in wastewater effluent, indicating that humic-like fluorescence is associated with different compounds depending on DOM source. Based on specific UV-absorption (SUVA), aromatic DOM was preferentially adsorbed. The fluorescence index (FI), if interpreted as an indicator of aromaticity, indicated the opposite but exhibited a strong relationship with average molecular weight, suggesting that FI might be a better indicator of DOM size than aromaticity. The influence of DOM intermolecular interactions on adsorption were minimal based on SEC analysis. Fluorescence parameters captured the impact of DOM size on the fouling of 2-methylisoborneol and warfarin adsorption and correlated with direct competition and pore blockage indicators.

Effect of DOM Size on Organic Micropollutant Adsorption by GAC.

Granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption of the micropollutants 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) and warfarin (WFN) at ng/L levels was investigated in five waters with isolated natural dissolved organic matter (DOM) held at a constant dissolved organic carbon concentration. Each water was evaluated for competitive adsorption effects based on the pretreatment of ultrafiltration, coagulation, and additional background micropollutants. Using the breakthrough with unfractionated DOM as a baseline, on average, the water with lower molecular weight (MW) DOM decreased MIB and WFN adsorption capacity by 59%, whereas the water with higher MW DOM increased MIB and WFN adsorption capacity by 64%. All waters showed similar decreasing MIB and WFN adsorption capacity with increasing empty bed contact time (EBCT), with more dramatic effects seen for the more strongly adsorbing WFN. On average, MIB and WFN adsorption kinetics were two times slower in the water with higher MW DOM compared to the water with lower MW DOM, as described by the intraparticle pore diffusion tortuosity. Increased adsorption competition from 27 micropollutants other than MIB and WFN at environmentally relevant concentrations had little to no effect on MIB and WFN breakthrough behavior. Any competitive effect from background micropollutants became indiscernible at longer EBCTs.

Full- and pilot-scale GAC adsorption of organic micropollutants.

Granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption of 30 environmentally relevant micropollutants (MP) from four surface waters was investigated at the pilot-scale with empty bed contact times (EBCTs) of 7 and 15 min. An increase in background dissolved organic matter resulted in more and earlier MP breakthrough. Compared to an EBCT of 7 min, MP breakthrough at an EBCT of 15 min demonstrated 52% later breakthrough on average for five MPs on a throughput basis. A regression model was developed with data from three waters to predict MP throughput in bed volumes to 10% breakthrough (BV10%) based on the influent dissolved organic carbon concentration and the MP pH-dependent octanol-water partition coefficient, polarizability, and molecular volume. The regression model over predicted full-scale BV10% values when applied to a wastewater-water impacted water source and to GAC with a larger particle diameter, for which a particle size adjustment was able to account for most of the difference.

Determining the effect of the incorporation of unnatural amino acids into antimicrobial peptides on the interactions with zwitterionic and anionic membrane model systems.

Circular Dichroism (CD), isothermal calorimetry (ITC) and calcein fluorescence leakage experiments were conducted to provide insight into the mechanisms of binding of a series of antimicrobial peptides containing unnatural amino acids (Ac-XF-Tic-Oic-XK-Tic-Oic-XF-Tic-Oic-XK-Tic-KKKK-CONH(2)) to zwitterionic and anionic micelles, SUVs and LUVs; where X (Spacer# 1) is either Gly, ß-Ala, Gaba or 6-aminohexanoic acid. It is the intent of this investigation to correlate these interactions with the observed potency and selectivity against several different strains of bacteria. The CD spectra of these compounds in the presence of zwitterionic DPC micelles and anionic SDS micelles are very different indicating that these compounds adopt different conformations on binding to the surface of anionic and zwitterionic membrane models. These compounds also exhibited very different CD spectra in the presence of zwitterionic POPC and anionic mixed 4:1 POPC/POPG SUVs and LUVs, indicating the formation of different conformations on interaction with the two membrane types. This observation is also supported by ITC and calcein leakage data. ITC data suggested these peptides interact primarily with the surface of zwitterionic LUVs and was further supported by fluorescence experiments where the interactions do not appear to be concentration dependent. In the presence of anionic membranes, the interactions appear more complex and the calorimetric and fluorescence data both imply pore formation is dependent on peptide concentration. Furthermore, evidence suggests that as the length of Spacer# 1 increases the mechanism of pore formation also changes. Based on the observed differences in the mechanisms of interactions with zwitterionic and anionic LUVs these AMPs are potential candidates for further drug development.

Spectroscopic and thermodynamic evidence for antimicrobial peptide membrane selectivity.

In our laboratory we developed a series of antimicrobial peptides that exhibit selectivity and potency for prokaryotic over eukaryotic cells (Hicks et al., 2007). Circular dichroism (CD), isothermal calorimetry (ITC) and calcein leakage assays were conducted to determine the mechanism of lipid binding of a representative peptide 1 (Ac-GF-Tic-Oic-GK-Tic-Oic-GF-Tic-Oic-GK-Tic-KKKK-CONH(2)) to model membranes. POPC liposomes were used as a simple model for eukaryotic membranes and 4:1 POPC:POPG liposomes were used as a simple model for prokaryotic membranes. CD, ITC and calcein leakage data clearly indicate that compound 1 interacts via very different mechanisms with the two different liposome membranes. Compound 1 exhibits weaker binding and induces less calcein leakage in POPC liposomes than POPC:POPG (4:1 mole ratio) liposomes. The predominant binding mechanism to POPC appears to be limited to surface interactions while the mechanism of binding to 4:1 POPC:POPG most likely involves some type of pore formation.